Non Experimental Research Design Psychology Essay

Non Experimental Research conception Psychology try forbiddenThis chapter details the methodology that volition be utilize to conduct this say. methodological synopsis is an approach, or method lend unmatchedselfd to conduct a query. The aspects that bequeath be discussed in this chapter include the researchs design, approach, ideal, official document, procedure, and too in ashesation assimilateion and abridgment.3.2 Researchs Approach and founding3.2.1 Researchs Approach at that place atomic design 18 devil types of approaches partd in research, which ar quantitative approach and qualitative approach. According to Blaxter, Hughes and Tight (as cited in Hughes, cc6) quantifiable research is a study that concerned with the collection and abstract of selective in multifariousnessation in numeric motley. It emphasizes relatively tremendous- scale and representative sets of entropy, and is often presented or perceived as being ab kayoed the gathering of facts . Qualitative research is concerned with collecting and analysing training in as many forms as possible, mainly non-numerical form. It focuses on exploring sm tot exclusivelyyer numbers of instances or examples which ar seen as being interesting or illuminating, and aims to achieve depth rather than breadth.In this study, the entropy collected by fall uponive ordain be in numerical form, which obtained from the questionnaires. Thus, the approach utilise in this study is quantitative research.3.2.2 Researchs DesignAccording to Chua Yan Piaw (2006), in that respect argon triple main designs in research, videlicet true experimental design, non-experimental design, and quasi-experimental design. True experimental design studies the relation in the midst of the self-directed variables and manipulated variables, manipulates the independent variables and observes the changes on manipulated variables. Non-experimental design is used when the treatment is not possible as the inde pendent variables naturally know, and the respondents impart be haphazard distri scarcelyed into e truly group. This design studies the relation among independent variables and manipulated variables without manipulate the independent variables. Besides that, quasi-experimental design normally used to evaluate the effectiveness of plastered program when then the randomly distribution of the respondents in the study is not possible. It studies the relation amongst independent variables and manipulated variables (Chua, 2006).Non-experimental research designAccording to Chua Yan Piaw (2006), on that point ar a lot of non-experimental designs, including peck, field research, case study, action research, ethnography, and so on. Survey is one of the al near extensively used non-experimental research design, which used in different form of media, such as magazine, newspapers, and television to collect entropy from subjects who respond to a serial of questions hazardly behavio rs and opinions regarding to certain issue, or to subject argona the effectiveness of a product or plan. Normally oppugn or quetionnaires result be used in collecting info. heavens research refers to gathering primary data from a natural milieu without doing a lab experiment or a survey, where the tec must(prenominal) be willing to step into new environments and observe, participate, or experience those worlds by themselves. Case study is an in-depth synopsis of a single event, situation, or individual, where the researcher examines existing sources deal documents and archival records, conducts interviews, engages in direct observation, and even actor observation, to collect the discipline in depth regarding to individual behaviours and social conditions. achievement research refers to the research initiated to solve an immediate problem or a reflective bear upon of progressive problem solvin lef by individuals working with others in teams or as part of a community of practice to emend the way they address and solve problems.Survey3.3 SamplingAccording to rattling and Airasian (2003), try out is the process of awarding a number of participants for a study in such a way that they represent the larger group from which they were selected (p. 101). Selecting a hear is a very important step in conducting a research study, particularly for quantitative research. The goodness of the sample ensures the meaningfulness and generalizability of the research results (Gay Asian, 2003, p. 103).3.3.1 commonwealthThe number one step in sampling is to define the world. A sample comprises the individuals, point in times, or events selected from a larger group referred to as a population. The population is the group of interest to the researcher, the group to which the results of the study will ideally understand (Gay Airasian, 2003, p. 102).The location of this study is Sabah, and the populations of this study argon all the speed form students in sec ondary schools in Sabah, who ar 16 to 17 long time old. Initially, the researcher will obtains the information close the upper form students from all the secondary schools in Sabah, and then dress the samples which argon involved in this study. The researcher will get the information about the score number of upper form students in to each one of the schools, because it major power influences the outcomes of the study.3.3.2 Sampling modeAccording to Chua Yan Piaw (2006), there are devil main sampling methods, which are probability sampling and non-probability sampling (p. 189). According to Gay and Airasian (2003), probability sampling, which to a fault known as random sampling, methods are possible for the researcher to outpouringify the probability, or chance, that each member of a defined population will be selected for the sample, and these sampling are all based on second in the selection of the sample (p. 103). Non-probability sampling, which is alike known as non- random sampling, methods do not encounter random sampling at any wander of sample selection, it is used when the random sampling is not possible, such as teachers or administrators select students or classes as the samples (p. 114). In this study, random sampling method will be used to select the sample.Gay and Airasian (2003) states that there are intravenous feeding basic random sampling techniques or procedures, to wit simple random sampling, stratified sampling, cluster sampling, and systematic sampling, which are also referred to as probability sampling (p. 103). Simple random sampling is the process of selecting a sample in such a way that all individuals in the selected population find an equal and independent chance to be selected for the sample, where the randomness in sampling takes the selection of the sample completely out of the researchers control by letting a random, or chance, procedure select the sample (p. 103). Stratified sampling is the process of selecting a sample in such a way that identify sub-groups in the population are represented in the sample in the same proportion that they exist in the population (p. 106). Besides that, cluster sampling randomly selects groups, not individuals all the members selected groups have similar characterisics, and it is most useful when the population is very large or spread out over a wide geographical area (p. 108). Lastly, systematic sampling is the sampling technique in which individuals are selected from a list taking every Kth name (p. 110).Although the actor of students field of study identity is designed to be applicable to all students in Malaysia, the secondary school students will be selected to footrace the creature in this study. The rationale of choosing upper form students as the target population to test the tool is they might be much mature if compared to the lower form students who are plainly 13 to 15 years old. They might have a better understanding on the particular p ropositions stated in the questions, and perchance they will give their response seriously. So, the outcomes which obtained from the upper form students might be much reliable and trus bothrthy if compared to lower form students. any upper form students from the secondary school in Sabah are over sampled. ii random samples of 200 students and 2500 students will be purchased for the two survey studies by using cluster sampling method. A number of schools will be randomly selected from each of the districts in Sabah as the representatives of those districts. The secondary school students in Sabah are eligible to receive the weaponsed survey.In the first survey study, the questionnaire will be signly sent to the random sample of 200 students to examine test-retest dependability of the actor and its subscale. Then, a repeat placard survey will be sent to the respondents from the initial mailing again. The test-retest reliableness of the instrument will be examined using the data from the remaining surveys returned from both the initial and repeat mailings.In the second survey study, the sample needed to be large in order to conduct fixings compend to test the seduce validness of the instrument. There is a general agreement among whole step methodologists that large sample sizes are required for the stability of results of actor analysis, the use of larger sample sizes in applications of factors analysis tends to provide results such that sample factor loadings are more precise estimates of population loadings and are also more stable, or less variable, across repeated sampling. The researcher will send the refined questionnaire to the second random sample of 2500 students in order to perform factor analysis, and then to test bring into being hardihood and subjective body reliableness of the instrument.3.4 Researchs ProceduresThis study will be conducted in two stages. Stage one is the instrument development, and stage two is the instrument test and refining. Stage one consists of 3 go and stage two consists of cinque steps. Each of these steps is described in the following section.3.4.1 Stage unity actor DevelopmentThe instrument development stage has collar steps (1) maturation conceptual and operational renderings of the bring about of students national identity, (2) generating event puss, and (3) ascertain the format for measurement (or selecting a scaling technique for the measurement). All the troika steps in this stage involved determination of nub daring of the instrument of students national identity.a. Step 1 Developing Conceptual and operable Definitions of the Construct.The first step in developing this instrument is to determine clear what the concept of students national identity is. The definition of the relieve oneself, students national identity, is based on (need more information from chapter 2)b. Step 2 Generating an Item Pool for the InstrumentThe focus of second step is to come back a large consortium of items for all the dimensions of the construct of students national identity. In the beginning stage, it is better to gene gait more items. Thus a 60 items scale might be evolve from an item pool over a hundred items.The instrument of students national identity is designed to measure the degree to which a student . Wording of the items is very important and should reflect this goal of the instrument. Appropriate choice of words can accurately capture the essence of the construct. The items are evaluative in nature and can reflect respondents views about the desirability of something.Moreover, the researcher veritable several negatively worded items with studious wording that examine students besides developing positively worded items that measure students national identity. The purpose of constructing several negatively worded items is to detect respondents with acquiescence bias by their response pattern if there is any. Those respondents will not be inclu de in the data analysis to nullify or minimize the influence caused by acquiescence bias. The issues related to acquiescence bias were discussed in detail in Chapter 2. afterwards a large pool of items that measures students national identity is established, the dissertation committee will be first critique all the items before sending the item pool to the expert panel for subject matter validity retread. The researcher will revises the item pool based on comments of the dissertation committee. The items which are repetitive, inappropriate or poorly worded, confusing, or ir germane(predicate) to the construct will be eliminated or revised. After this revision, 84 items were retained in the instrument.c. Step 3 ascertain the Format for the InstrumentThe researcher considers the format simultaneously with the generation of items so that the two are compatible. The Likert scales with five responses options is chosen to develop the instrument measuring rod the students national ide ntity. Each item is presented as a declaration sentence, followed by the response options that indicate varying degrees of agreement with the statement. The five response options are (1) strongly protest, (2) disagree, (3) both agree or disagree, (4) agree, and (5) strongly agree. These five points Likert scales are ordinal scale level. Each item in the instrument is categorize as two broad categories, which are favourable (positive) or unfavorable (negative). Scoting is reversed for negatively worded items such that disagreement with a negatively worded resulted in high stigma.At this step, the development stage is completed. Then, the researcher will moves on to the next stage, which is instrument scrutiny and refining.3.4.2 Stage 2 Instument Testing and purificationThe instrument testing and refining stage includes give steps (1) establishing nub validity of the instrument, (2) developing directions for responding, (3) preparing a revised draft of the questionnaire, (4) e xamining test-retest reliability and pretesting natural consistency reliability, dan (5) testing construct validity and internal consistency reliability. All steps in this stage involve refining the instrument and testing the psychometric properties of the instrument.a. Step 1 Establishing Content Validity of the Instrument ascertain the number of experts needed has always been somewhat arbitrary in theme validity determination. According to Lynn (1986) (as cited in Wynd, Schmidt, Schaefer, 2003), a minimum of five experts (rates, observers, or judges) and a larger number of categories for data assignment yield great supreme agreement and increase the risk of chance agreement. The use of more experts may therefore contribute directly to chance agreement (pg 511). The use of only two judges is not only statistically unjustifiable, but also it places the instrument developer at great risk of an erroneous shutdown that content validity has been achieved when it actually has not (Bu, 2005, pg 73). In this study, five experts who either have conducted research related to students national identity or have interest in students national identity will be asked to review the instrument as the content experts.A delineation of the full content dimentions of the construct of students national identity with specific instructions pertaining to the content relevance of each item are provided to the experts by mail or netmail for review. The five will be asked to return the instrument and their comments within intravenous feeding to five weeks. This review serves multiple purposes related to determining and maximizing the content validity of the instrument.First, having experts review the item pool, confirm or in confirm the definition of the phenomenon of students national identity and the content validity of the instrument is quantified. The experts will be asked to rate how relevant they think each item is related to what the researcher intends to measure. The in strument of students national identity includes three subscales. The general objective of the subscale of is to measure the degree to which the student Under the broad objective, more specific objectives that are assumed to measure relevant items will provided as well. The intensity of students national identity can fluctuate over time but they are considered stable during a certain period of time, typically three to four weeks. These objectives will be sent to experts along with the instrument. The experts will be asked to rate the content relevance of each item to its general objective and its more specific objective.Content validity index (CVI).. In addition, the experts will be asked to clarify reasons and provide suggestions if they disagree with some items included in the instrument.Second, the experts will be asked to evaluate the items clarity and conciseness. Sometimes, the content of an item may be relevant to the construct but its wording may be problematic. This yields problems on item reliability because an ambiguous or otherwise unclear item, to a greater degree than a clear item, may reflect factors irreverent to the latent variable.Third, in addition to judging each item, the experts will be asked to identify phenomena that were omitted from the instrument as a part of the content validity assessment. Thus, by asking experts to review the instrument in a contour of ways the researcher could capture the phenomenon of interest, and the expert reviewers help the researcher increase the content validity of the instrument.The researcher will be paid careful attention to all suggestions from these content experts then made an informed finale about how to use their advice. The instrument will be revised to invoke content validity with the consensus of the dissertation committee.b. Step 2 Developing Directions for RespondingThe procedures for responding to the statements, as well as the meaning of the anchor points on the continuum, will be caref ully develop and then reviewed by the dissertation committee moderate and colleagues to avoid confusing respondents. Dillman (1978) (as cited in Bu, 2005) proposed some ideas about providing directions to subjects on how to root questionnaires. He states that the encirclement process results in fewer ambiguous markings and should be encouraged. It is important that the same marking procedure be used end-to-end the questionnaire. Lower case letters are preferred for directions because of their greater legibility (pg 76). The researcher will apply these suggestions when developing directions for responding.c. Step 3 Preparing a Draft of the Questionnaire.This step involves constructing a draft of the questionnaire and assessing the questionnaire. Three activities will be completed in this step. First, a section of questions for gathering demographic information from participants will be designed and included in the survey along with the instrument of students national identity. The purpose of developing this section of questions is to gather information that would be used to describe characteristics of the participants.Second is the issue of ordering the questions in the questionnaire. In this study, items that are measuring the same dimension will be grouped together. The questions that request demographic information are put at the end of the questionnaire. The questionnaire consists of two parts.Part one is composed of a series of items pertaining to students national identity. Items represented .dimensions..The form of the instrument of students national identity looks like the following sample.ItemStrongly disagree(1)Disagree(2)Either disagree or agree(3)Agree(4)Strongly agree(5)Item 112345Item 212345Item 312345Part two of the questionnaire consists of the demographic questions and includes as well as characteristics such as age, gender, ethnicity, geographic location.Third, the questionnaire is distributed to . For the review of clarity of directions, ease of responding and time needed to fill out the questionnaire.d. Step 4 Examining Test-Retest Reliability and Pretesting intrinsic Consistency ReliabilityAfter questionnaire is produced, the researcher conducts two survey studies to gather data to examine construct validity and reliability of the instrument. Step 4 is to examine test-retest reliability of the instrument, preliminarily test internal consistency reliability of the instrument, and perform item analysis.It is assumed that the construct of students national identity does not change in subjects within two to three weeks. The researcher initially mailed the questionnaire to .. In two to three weeks, a repeat survey will be mailed to the respondents from the initial mailing. The test-retest reliability of the instrument of students national identity and its ..subscales are examined among the subjects responding both the initial and the repeat mailings.Cronbachs of import of the instrument and its . Subscales is calcula ted using the data from the questionnaires returned from the initial mailing to pretest internal consistency reliability of the instrument and its.subscales.In addition, an item analysis for each subscale will be performed using the data from the returned questionnnaires from the initial mailing for the purpose of refining the instrument. An item needed to meet Likerts touchstone of internal consistency in order to be retained in the scale. A condition item whose score significantly correlated with the relevant scale score, which is 0.3 is considered to meet the criterion of internal consistency and is retained in the instrument. An item whose score does not significantly related to the scale score, which is 0.3, is rechecked and rigid for retainment, elimination or revision depending on theory, content of the item, function of the item in the instrument.e. Step 5 Testing Construct Validity and Internal Consistency ReliabilityIn this step, the refined survey will be sent to .. t o collect data in order to examine the construct validity of the instrument using factor analysis and the internal consistency reliability of the instrument using Cronbachs of import. figure analysis is performed using data from the returned questionnaires. Factor analysis is used to determine construct validity of the instrument of students national identity and select items for inclusion in the instrument.Factor analysis is a broad category of approaches to determine the structure of dealing among measures (Nunnally Bernstein, 1994). Factor analysis can be used to determine (1) grouping variables, (2) which variables cash in ones chips to which factor and how strong their relationship, (30 how many dimensions are needed to explain the relations among the variables, and (4) a frame of reference to describe the relation among the variables more conveniently.There are two major approaches to factor analysis exploratory factor analysis and verifying factor analysis. In explorator y factor analysis, one seeks to summarize data by grouping together variables that are intercorrelated. The variables themselves may or may not have been chosen with potential be structure in mind. Exploratory factors are defined to achieve a mathematical objective such as maximizing the variance accounted for. In confirmatory factor analysis, factors are defined directly, which incorporate the properties such as the number of factors and content (or variables) of each factor that have been hypothesized and then determine how well these rifle the data (Nunnally Bernstein, 1994). According to Tabachnick Fidell (1983), exploratory factor analysis is usually performed in the early stages of research to consolidate variables and generate hypotheses about relationships in a reduced data set. Confirmatory factor analysis generally occurs later in the research process, when a theory about structure is to be tested or when hypothesized differences in structure between groups of research units are tested. Variables are specifically chosen to reveal profound structural processes. information used in confirmatory factor analysis, then, might be different from those used in exploratory factor analysis.Cronbachs alpha will be calculated in this large sample to determine the internal consistency reliability of the instrument of attitudes toward patient advocacy and its three subscales.Up to this step, the instrument of students national identity will be established.3.5 info Collection Schedule and ProceduresThere are some differences between the data collection schedule and procedures for the test-retest study and the construct validity study. For the test-retest reliability study, surveys with the protract letters will be mailed to the 200 randomly selected subjects. A stamped returning envelope will be included in the mail for return of the survey. A code number will be accustomed to the 200 subjects, and those respondents from the initial mailing survey will be identified and sent a repeat survey within two to three weeks after the initial mailing in order to examine test-retest reliability. Thus, anonymity of respondents is not ensured in the test-retest reliability study for the purpose of the repeat mailing to those who returned the survey.Considering budget limitation for the dissertation, the researcher will crops only one middleman with the 2500 randomly selected subjects. In this contact, a mailing that included the survey, a critical cover letter explaining the nature of the study and asking for response and a business reply envelope will be sent to the 2500 subjects. Since only one contact was made to the 2500 students, anonymity of respondents is ensured in the study.A codebook for data entering will be developed and reviewed. A data debut program will be set up to facilitate inputting data. Data will be entered as responses to the questionnaire are returned. Entered data will be verified to check for errors in data input by deprivation over 25% of the returned and entered questionnaires and running frequencies of each item of the questionnaire. Any differences between original data entry and verification required checking the raw data and correcting the entered data. Data analysis will begins after completion of data entry and involved statistical consultation with the dissertation committee members.3.6 Data synopsis and InterpretationThree types of data analyses will be conducted in this study, which are analysis related to reliability, analysis related to validity, and descriptive statistics. First, the content validity of the instrument will be determined by CVI. The CVI was the proportion of items given a rating of 3 (relevant and needs a little revision) or 4 (very relevant) to the objectives of a measure based on 4-point ordinal scale by at least six out of the seven experts (86% agreement) in this study.Second, data from the respondents returned from the initial mailing in the test-retest stu dy will be used for the analysis of Cronbachs alpha to pretest the internal consistency reliability of the instrument. Data from the questionnaires that are returned from both the initial and the repeat mailings will be used for examining the test-retest reliability. A total score for each of the subscales and the whole instrument will be obtained with the initial mailing, and a second total score for each of the subscales and the whole instrument will be obtained with the second mailing. The test-retest reliability coefficient of the instrument and its subscales will be obtained by correlating the initial mailing gain ground with the second mailing scores using Pearson Product Moment correlativity Coefficient. High correlation coefficient indicates high stability or test-retest reliability of the instrument. This reliability coefficient above .70 is considered satisfactory.Third, item analysis will be performed using data from the questionnaires returned from the initial mailing. Correlations among items within each subscale and between each item with the total subscale score will be examined. Items with low correlations with the relevant subscale score (Fourth, factor analysis will be performed using data from the questionnaires to determine the construct validity of the instrument of students nationasl identity. Factor analysis is () In this study, exploratory and confirmatory factor analysis approaches will be used to examine the construct validity of the instrument.Exploratory factor analysis will be first performed to extract factors from the instrument of students national identity and determine the items to be included in the instrument. If evidence for construct validity exists, the number of factors resulting from the analysis should approximate the number of dimensions assessed by the instrument, and the items with the highest factor loadings defining each factor should oppose to the items designed to measure each of the dimensions of the instrum ent (Waltz et al., 1991). Exploratory factor analysis consists of two stages extract factors and rotating extracted factors (Nunnally Bernstein, 1994). The analysis first condenses the variables (items) into the smallest number of factors that explain the most variance.Principal component analysis (PCA) and principal axis analysis (PAF) are two most popular ways to condense data. ..Then, three most common statistical precepts were used to determine the number of factors. First, the Kaiser-Guttman rule retains factors with absolute eigenvalues of 1.0 or greater. However, this rule tends to suggest too many factors. The second rule is scree test that uses relative changes in these eigenvalues..Since the unrotated factors are usually uncorrectable to interpret, the second stage of exploratory factor analysis is to rotate these factors to make them more meaningful or more interpretable.. Orthogonal and musculus obliquus externus abdominis rotationsResults of the exploratory factor an alysis will also be used for identification and selection of indicators (items) for the instrument.Confirmatory factor analysis was used to validateIn confirmatory factor analysis, the researcher specifies which items load on each factor according to preconceived theory to test the theory. The result of this analysis indicates how well the empirical data actually conform to these specifications, that is, whether the items actually form the theorized constructs.In order to test the fit of the model to the data, multiple fit indices that reflect somewhat different facets of model fit are suggested ..Goodness-of-Fit force (GFI)Comparative Fit Index (CFI)Adjusted Goodness-of Fit Index (AGFI) blood line Mean Square Residual (RMR)Root Mean Square geological fault of Approximation (RMSEA)Finally, Cronbachs alpha will be calculated using the data from the returned surveys to determine the internal consistency reliability of the instrument and its subscales. High Cronbachs alpha indicates that the instrument has high internal consistency. Nunnally and Bernstein suggest that, for the newly developed instrument, the Cronbachs alpha with .70 is acceptable. Also, descriptive statistics such as frequency, mean, and standard deviation will be used to describe the characteristics of the sample in both the test-retest reliability study and the construct validity study. Test-retest reliability, item analysis, descriptive statistics, exploratory factor analysis and Cronbachs alpha will be performed using SPSS version 20.0.0 for Windows. AMOS 5.0 for